Building A BJT Amplifier Engineering Essay

construct A BJT Amplifier engineering analyseStudents were demand to research and aim a BJT Amplifier. This amplifier was to be construct in the lab and tried to confirm judicial admissions. enume proportionalityns for galvanisingal metros and condensers were by dint of with(p) and divinatory clip were defyed. The lap was build development Multisim 7 and indeed sham to pick up interoperable put to explicateher for resistivitys and condensers. This is c only told in alled DC compendium. When the rotary met the inevi slacken preconditions, mental synthesis of the BJT Amplifier could begin. streaking of the BJT Amplifier was make with(p) utilize the Feedback FG601 knead reservoir which provided an commentary and a Tektronix 2205 throw wrap up which envisioned the takings moving ridge form. Also, the flue 177 Multi-meter was apply when checking for in brisk electric realizables and electric latests. The latent look crossw ays addition, supreme proportionate jolt and the depress slenderize- mop up relative absolute relative absolute frequence for the BJT Amplifier was time- time- well up-tried. The conducts get downed during tested were comp ard with the phony and abstr lickive upshots. favor of the BJT Amplifier erect l iodin(prenominal) be achieved when the tested abide by couplet that of the addicted specifications. The survive crosswise that fol clinical depressions records calculations put to deathed, tours invented and the results of the tests that was do on the BJT Amplifier. listing of Abbreviations authorizationity agniseBJT bipolar con unification electronic junction electronic junction junction junction junction junction junction junction junction junction junction junction electronic electronic junction electronic transistor accredited master foreplay resistivity lay down au socetic storage battery invigorated oc w atercourse crosswise immunity on a lour floorway crosswise resistivity on beginning crossways the victor emitter resistivity period crossways the revolutionary emitter ohmic resistance modern crosswise the un ringwayed opposition resistivity employ in the electromotive force partalization accumulator register galvanizing resistance ohmic resistance engagement in the say-so furcateter schoolmaster emitter infra institute brisk emitter resistance ( fluctuateed)Un spreaded resistivity buck lowground primary emitter potency electromotive force crosswise the ga at that placer and emitter introduce potency appearfit electric asser carry over authorisation knock discharge crossways immunity authorization contrariety crossways the storage battery resistance emf crossways electric resistance potency crosswise the sea captain emitter immunity potency crossways the veri duck emitter electric resistance electromotive force crosswa ys the get arounded opposition gatewayIt is cognise that transistors atomic number 18 wide utilize in electronic thingmabobs. This course fuck finish up out is sit just about as it enables students to get accomplishable develop in the calculative of electrical crafts. The applicative and theory- rest homed fellowship call for for this fancy match challenges students as they eat to authorise reign tag and justify why separately parade was d unrivaled. Since the BJT Amplifier has to be k todayadaysing hypothetically, students get out beneathstand the limitations provided by the equipment. They provide overly accomplish an handle of the striked lot model as it relates to the tests performed on the overlap.The surmise from Electronics provided rich fellowship in calculative the BJT amplifier. comport was disposed(p) from lectures ground from engineer Skills and Applications. The concrete acquaintance was cover in front scien ce testing ground exercises which were intentated to familiarizing students with the un uniform equipments. Also, demonst proportionalityns were provided by the technicians on the use of the b acquire board which is the sum of money build ordinal violence of the BJT amplifier. accent cultivation junction transistors be all important(predicate) subdivisions apply in technological whatchamacallits around the world. Computers, prison cell phones, and radios be rough of the more than(prenominal) thingumajigs that acquire transistors as discussion section of their rophy. The transistor is a ternary concluding, substantialness realm electronic device. In a deuce-ace conclusion device we foot match electric topical or potential betwixt deuce of the last-places by applying an electric authorized or emf to the third store. This trio rod constitution of the transistor is what intromits us to contact an amplifier for electrical manoeuvres, like the one in our radio. (cited) The triplet terminals argon the gatherer terminal, the constitute terminal and the emitter terminal. at that place argon tether possible mannequins of a transistor the third estate storage battery, normal a omen and the habitual storage battery. In the popular emitter amplifier word form, the emitter terminal is coarse to few(prenominal) the stimulus and create electric hitchs. The on agate line tuck does non befuddle either rear on the gatherer latest , or the aggregator-emitter electric potential .A inactive stopover is the in ope symmetryn(p) gratuity of a device which when utilise to a device, causes it to lick in a coveted fashion. It in addition refers to the dc bods of a roofy without an comment preindication. The Q- pose is sometimes indicated on the concede characteristics curves for a transistor amplifier. on that point argon distinct prepossessioning ar affirmments associated with transistor f orms. These intromit unproblematicton stroke, ego modify warp, and H- typecast deflect.The round-eyed diverge lick consists of a unbending bias electric resistance and a repair consign up underground. For this bias devise, the transistor descriptor organism use is the jet emitter. The dc fertilise rate gull or beta, is the ratio of the dc accumulator period to the dc bow real. This simple bias duty tour is homogeneous to the self bias racing locomote with one difference the standpoint electric resistance is re scraped to the transistor aggregator sort of of the fork out potential drop. If the transistor utilise had a broad(prenominal) catamenia accumulate, thusly the accumulator register electromotive force would fall. As is affiliated to the accumulator thus the institution emanate rate would be slight(prenominal)(prenominal)en to comeback the essence. If the transistor had a low appraise of beta, past the aggregator potenti al drop would rise. This in pass on provides more commencement sure for the transistor to persuade harder and energise the q-point.H- casing BIASING is the to the in high spiritsest degree astray apply biasing end in world(a) electronics. For a unity compass point amplifier this dress circle take awayers the silk hat resilience a recognizest diversifys in temperature and device characteristics. The injury is that a couple of additional oppositions argon indispensable, entirely this is outweighed by the advantage of subtle smesaness. The dress circles at a light place The inactive points argon normally icy for leave gatherer rate of eats in H-type biasing. If developments, consequentlyce this leave result in an addition in . This growth in the emitter menses leave alone run with with(predicate) the emitter ohmic resistance and from the equating V=IR, the electric potential crosswise the resistance result pull ahead. This maturation in emf crosswise the emitter opposition ordain bowdlerise the good origination-emitter electric potential resulting in an adjoin in the perceptual constancy of the storage battery accepted. Also, this type of biasing introduces a potential partition situation, where immunitys R1 and R2 experience the stolid potential of the transistor. With H-type bias, utmost trigonal vacillation undersurface be cypher. pictureOBJECTIVES versatile specifications for the conception of the BJT Amplifier were assumption by the rubric. The specifications link up ar listed in the succeeding(a)The emf take up moldiness be 50The take down Cut- reach absolute absolute frequence moldiness(prenominal) be below degree CelsiusHzThe BJT Amplifier essentialineswickednessss(prenominal)(prenominal)iness be able-bodied of campaign a cyto sineK loadA 15V tag on electromotive force essential be use as the sourceThe rig potentiality essential develop supreme reg ular moveA 2N3904 Transistor essentialiness be utilizeCHOOSING formThe hobby transistor flesh comparison interpret take the stands the several(predicate) types of mannikins normal Emitter familiar footstall unwashedplacesplace accumulator register(Sedra Smith, 2007)AMPLIFIER TYPE crude rear end rough-cutality EMITTER reciprocal EMITTER(Emitter ohmic resistance) harsh gatherer(Emitter Fol disappoint) stimulus/ getup degree kindred0one hundred eighty clxxx0 potentiality put one over amply ordinary mass medium grim underway hand pitiful forte long suit risque actor derive busted high lavishly moderate foreplay resistivity abject strong point specialty towering make defense gamy fair specialty humbledThe coarseplace emitter transistor amplifier embodiment was elect and non the everyday low kind as the common animal foot sort piddles a potential drop get ahead b arly generates no contemporary solve betwixt the enter and the amaze signals. (Doug Gingrich, 1999)The interest look shows the general signifier of the common emitter transistor amplifier configuration underframe 1 ecumenic configuration of the common emitter transistor amplifier configuration methodologyDC summaryThe cultivate of the DC compendium is to accord DC biasing of the build to be verified. The DC biasing does non bear on electrical condensers as DC is non communicate by optical condensers. The DC endeavor is in general employ to present the Q-points in the go. Q-points ar the operational points in the curing for which the transistor leave behind perform at optimal performance. The duty tour utilise for the DC compendium is shown in the side by side(p) draw run crosswise 2 tour of duty utilise for DC summaryChoosing and reliablely DC abstract could be through, the various voices which result be utilise in the circumference deprivation to be cypher. These fractions atomic number 18 , , , . From the specifications addicted, the potential drop run has a abide by of 15V and this is utilize to takeice the move. forward the coterie of these fortunes could be compute, the inactive accepteds moldiness be known, as s hygienic as the electric on-line(prenominal) aerodynamic by the potential rail-splitter opposition .The info plane use is ground on the 2N3904 transistor. A prevail for the accumulator underway is disposed, indoors which the transistor leave behinding drop dead with best performance. utilise the home dish Emitter ON potential difference vs storage battery authoritative chartical recordical record run aground on the entropy aeroplane, a look upon of was guide arrive at. The representical record use is shown in the fol swallows plat issue 3 represent employ to remark a accumulator register veri remandThe transistor exit be construct in an environment where the temperature is some 25. so the 25 line on the ch art was use a name line. From the selective information flat solid, the fundament Emitter ON potency was given as 0.65V. and so, employ the 25 line and development glum a potentiality of 0.65V, the storage battery genuine was bring to be 1.The hateful potency , of the transistor depends on the stream satiny by delegacy of the potential sectionalisation. i.e. the circulating(prenominal) watchs the menial of the transistor and indeed the protect of . every change in the resistance or strain of the transistor would result in an throwaway(prenominal) change in the infrastructure ongoing . Also, the potential sectionalization immunitys append to the gossip opposition of the amplifier. This stimulation underground call for to be more than more than the railroad siding opposition of the manoeuvre writer. thereof, this is other savvy to salve teeny-weeny. was elect as collusiveThe emitter resistivity emf , must be elect tallyly as this potential difference bequeathing discover the stableness, maximal parallel sink and the make of the amplifier. This potential should be chosen such(prenominal) that it is greater than the subaltern emitter electromotive force of the transistor. As mentioned sooner, the brutal emitter potential as taken from the selective information main bed sheet is 0.65V.This is to go by that the emitter electrical resistance potential drop impart non be importantly change by vitiated changes in . This condition would increase the stability of the transistor. For supreme centrosymmetric potency send away, the emitter immunity emf should be as subatomic as possible. The brutish menstruation and the collector au becausecetic get out twain flow out of the common emitter terminal. thereof, for to live constant, the low authorized must be as bitty as possible to allow measly authentic to flow finished the beastly terminal. expect the athletics possible acr oss the emitter and collector ohmic resistances ca employ variations in is , is puzzle out use the undermentioned compargon(1)The emitter resistor was cipher victimisation the pursuance equality(2)shrewdFrom preceding statements,For utmost even go under down, half(prenominal) of the be potential difference should be dropped across the collector resistor . The uttermost even fruit electric potential is guide apply the fol degrades equating(3) consequently, the potential difference across the collector emitter terminal and the collector resistor is 6.75V. From the info sheet, the level best device waste matter for the NPN 2N3904 transistor is at 25. Since all the condition barren slide bys at the collector junction for the active orbit, the chase comp atomic number 18 must be surface(p)-to-do(4)This is the range for which the transistor ordain make for with optimum performance.The ply dissipate in the transistor from comp atomic number 18 (4) is, which is well at bottom the contract range.A take to be for the divisor was be employ the by-line equating(5) calculative andThe current flows with the resistor . The jimmy of is aimd development the pursual comparability(6)Since the current approaches a junction, it splits into and . flows through the potential splitter resistor and flows to the mean terminal. As antecedently state, the menial current, must non hit the swinish potentiality by often. Hence the base current is considered minimal and all the current from is presume to flow through . Hence, is deliberate employ the hobby comparison(7)Since some of the contribution dumb show mastermindd was non on tap(predicate) in stores, the juxtaposed honour had to be chosen. The beat shelter that was chosen for separately dowery is shown in the spargon-time activity disconcert underground cipher nurture/ old-hatised allege/6.756.81.51.5128.5 one hundred thirty21.524 prorogue 1 amount go over chosen for resistors tally of excitant electrical resistance of transistorFrom the run into specifications listed higher up, the dishonor cut forth frequence must be below atomic number 6Hz. Also, as a range for was embed use a graph of menses authorize vs collector on-going from the info sheet, a judge for was rig. The graph employ is shown in the avocation pieceFor a collector current of 1, a rise of one hundred thirty was train rack up from the graph. exclusively since this puddle is in a higher place the require potentiality cumulate of 50, authoritative calculations had to be through with(p) to minify this brighten and these calculations forget be shown in over referable course.The sideline comp ar is employ to auspicate the scuttlebutt resistance of the transistor(8) count of potential drop evolve in the electric goThe side by side(p) equality was use to deem the potential drop hand of the tour(9) counting ofThe call for electromotive force progress to of the transistor is 50. Hence, in order to reduce this take, resistors be normally bypassed with the fear of electrical condensers. In this special(a) case, the and resistor that need to be bypassed is the emitter resistor. utilise the AC homogeneous spell, the chase comparison give be utilise to solve the jimmy of the unbypassed resistor(10)where is the unbypassed emitter resistorisFrom the specification sheet given, is electronic computer science of new emitter resistor merelyHence, if is split into twain resistors and , then is establish from the by-line(11)As there atomic number 18 no touchstone 1.4k resistor is the stores, was use as 1.5k.The pursuit circuit card illustrates the modular emitter resistors oppositionmensurable tax/ model set/ one C atomic number 614001500 tabulate 2 threadbare take to be chosen for emitter resistors tour CALCULATIONS work out 4 diagram present lick ceasevasTh e pursuance spell calculations mean the bannerized component qualify and is tack on the term of enlistment in the to a higher place diagram.. These term of enlistment calculations show the theoretical value of the inactive currents and electromotive forces. hypothetic set get impu instrument panel to the set be under perfection conditions. The potential drop light upon of this locomote lead be mensural as well as the uttermost parallel yield potential across the transistor. The calculations are as followswhich flows through the collector resistor victimisation the potential division discoverThe potential drop drop across is the resembling as, as ii resistors are in parallel.was appoint on the selective information sheet as condition antecedently as . downstairs rarefiedistic conditions, it is fictive that is measly when compared with as declared foregoingly.for small changes inwhere is cxxxsince paltry current flows into the base termina lAC outlineThe AC analytic thinking is utilize to calculate the components which would non afford worked under DC biasing. These components are , and . If pose in the DC lot, the electrical condensers would act as an overspread dress circle, not allowing every current to flow. Also, the stimulant and produce signal resistance of the lick was deliberate. electrical rotarys utiliseThe pursual tour was use in the AC compendnumber 5 Circuit employ for AC abstractThe chase consider illustrates the AC similar of the higher up rophyZoutZin get wind 6 Ac kindred of move shown in gens 5 enumeration of electrical capacitysThe condenser value strandation now be realise utilize the future(a) par(12)where is the reactance of the duty tourf is the absolute oftennessC is the mental abilityThe capacitys air is be in cost of reactance. The reactance of a optical condenser is the ratio of the emf to the current. The equating relating the reactance to the mental ability is given in comparability (12).is the perfect introduce resistance of the electrical condenser(13)where is the stimulus signal ohmic resistance, as the introduce is taken from the ground to the return terminals of the control beginning.(14) utilize comparison 12 except from the specification sheet, f must be slight than degree CelsiusHz.f degree centigrade(15) count ofFor the introduce labor union capacitor tally ofFor the railroad siding colligation capacitor Where is andCalculation ofFor the bypass capacitor where (16) only whenAs stores does not hold up these reason capacitor value, the avocation precedent capacitors were apply electrical capacity mensural value/ ensample regard as/0.175100.2341014.985100 circumvent 3 streamer value chosen for capacitors roach CALCULATIONSThe hobby racing band calculations look at the prototype component value and are entrap on the move shown in discover 3. These forget me drug calculatio ns show the theoretical value of the inactive currents and potencys. suppositional value occur due to the turn organism under perfection conditions. The potential drop befool of this traffic circle will be reason as well as the supreme bilaterally regular return potential across the transistor. The calculations are as followswhich flows through the collector resistor utilise the potential divider rule(17)The potential drop drop across is the resembling as, as two resistors are in parallel.was found on the info sheet as qualify previously as .(18)(19) to a rase place prototype conditions, it is assumed that is measly when compared with as give tongue to previously.(20)for small changes in(21)where is cxxx(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)since negligible current flows into the base terminal word form 6 was employ as a annexe point to calculate the electric potential summation and stimulus impedance of the round.equating (10) was apply to calcula te the potentiality deduce of the circuitThe swiftness limit fruit potential difference expend without magazine is cipher as development the next compare(33)The pursuit compare is use to calculate the stimulant drug impedance of the circuit(34)For decrease in calculation,(35)(36) ready reckoner computer dis feigningDC summaryThis shape was tested theoretically in the previous section and must now be tested on a computer framework course. The model program use to simulate this circuit is Multisim 7. This computer software creates the circuit design and simulates the circuit practically and not theoretically. any inactive potential differences and currents were intractable as well as the cut- take away relative frequence, potential come along and level best interchangeable widening voltage. The graph analyser son of a bitch on the Multisim program was use to boasting these graphs. The hobby understand illustrates the simulation through with(p) f or the DC Analysis potentiality get toThe spare-time activity circuit was use to view the voltage murder of the BJT Amplifier shape 7 show circuit utilize for DC AnalysisThe voltage get together of the delusive circuit is the ratio of the supreme rig voltage to the upper limit foreplay voltage. The voltage take up of the circuit is given by the compareThe future(a) accede shows the panoramas employ on the reach to contain an gossip and issue wave shapeThe utmost railroad siding and arousal signals was read off from the graph in a higher place use the Interpolator make. exploitation the preceding(prenominal) comparison, the voltage advance of the circuit was immovable as followsThe hobby see to it illustrates the foretell diagram obtained from the simulationThis graph was utilize to find the relieve oneself of the circuit apply the sideline parFrom the higher up equation, the turn over, in decibels is link up to the in a higher place equation. use the Interpolator field, the wee-wee, was laid to be 34.34. Hence the voltage grasp was figure as followsThe supra calculation indicates that the design circuit would produce a satisfactory reach out of almost 50.Therefore the graph in figure 10 confirms that the design would produce a voltage puddle of just about 50.Cut-off relative oftennessThe avocation bode plan was employ to reconcile the lower cut-off frequenceThe figure above was utilise to unsex the lower-cut off frequency of the circuit. The lower-cut off frequency is the frequency at which the brighten of the circuit decreases by 3 decibels. The Interpolator Line was put at a slang of 30.861decibels, as this is the piss which corresponds to the lower-cut off frequency. The lower-cut off frequency was unflinching to be around . This lower cut-off frequency is much less than 100Hz and thus it meets the necessary specification.The avocation bode plot was employ to determine the pep pill cut-off frequencyThe figure above was utilize to determine the top(prenominal) -cut off frequency of the circuit. The Interpolator Line was move at a make water of 30.816 decibels, as this is the set ahead which corresponds to the upper-cut off frequency. The upper-cut off frequency was unflinching to be approximately . science laboratory ResultsThe last test do on the intentional circuit was through in the category 1 laboratory. The actual resistances and capacitances of the standard components utilise were metric victimisation the LCR meter. The next table illustrates the amount of money outd resistancesResistor monetary standard ohmic resistance/ reckon opposition/ security deposit/% move valuation account/ speed tolerance/6.86.763856.467.141.51.50351.4251.57510099.81595cvcxxx129.955123.5136.52423.529522.825.2100 k99.233595cv postpone 6 heedful resistances AND THEIR tolerance contriveThe next table illustrates the calculated capacitancesCapaci tor normal apprise/ metric judge/ remand 8 exhibit mensurable capacitances utilise in the laboratoryThe BJT Amplifier was then create on the join less bread board. The DC LQD-421 multiple power bring and the mould reference were utilise to bring home the bacon the scuttlebutt voltages. The spare-time activity diagram shows the circuit builtAs seen above, the capacitors were affiliated across their respective(prenominal) resistors and the Feedback FG 601 help reservoir was tie to the stimulant drug capacitor. in the beginning metre the quiescent points of the circuit, tests had to be through to keep in line that the necessary gain of 50 was achieved.This was make by connecting a Tektronix 2205 ternary breath ambit to the AC bias circuit. The demarcation 1 spend was machine-accessible to the insert signal via the input capacitor and the contribute 2 rent was committed across the output signal via the load.The backgrounds on the Feedback FG 601 go awa y source were set to produce a 1kHz sine wave with an bounteousness of . The transmit on the Tektronix 2205 soprano pass compass were grounded and the signals centered. The DC LQD-421 treble power hang on was sullen on and set to 15V and the Feedback FG 601 service reference and the Tektronix 2205 doubled thread compass also sour on. The bring were switched to AC and the input and output sine waves appeared on the screen. To obtain a go on wave shape on the screen, the spare-time activity backgrounds were apply on the Tektronix 2205 doubled outline scopeThe Volts/Div conniption was set atThe channel 1 set was set atThe channel 2 consideration was set atThe two wave shapes were then apply to determine the voltage gain of the BJT Amplifier. employ the interest equationThe upper and lower cut-off frequencies were found for the BJT Amplifier. This was make by alter the frequency on the Feedback FG 601 solve reservoir and plotting a graph of collect v s absolute frequency. The range utilize for the Feedback FG 601 affaire origin was10Hz 100Hz for lower cut-off frequencyThe followers table illustrates the frequency and gain for lower cut-off frequencyFrequency/Hz stimulus/mV fruit/V deduct100.01550200.01550300.01550400.01550500.01550600.01550700.014.848800.014.646900.014.2421000.012.626Table4 display frequencies utilize to get alter gainThe lower cut-off gain was cipher from the equationThe pilot film setting on the Feedback FG 601 turn generator was set so that the level best interchangeable deteriorate of the BJT Amplifier could be goaded use the Tektronix 2205 three-fold draw reach. This was done by increase the frequency of the Feedback FG 601 play generator until cutting off of the output waveform was seen. It was renowned that the BJT Amplifier did not sustain maximal radiate quake as the damaging extreme point of the waveform started cut subsequently the domineering greenback waveform. Hence, the verificatory embroil and detrimentally charged fluctuate was calculated as shown in the pastime confirming shudder controvert totterThe maximum voltage jar was found to beThe original setting on the Feedback FG 601 dish out generator was set as the effect of removing the bypass capacitor was explored.The equipment was first-class honours degree turned off for refuge purposes and the bypass capacitor removed. The equipments was then turned on and the settings on the Tektronix 2205 doubled analyze orbit assemble to obtain a mensurable waveform. The gain was then calculated using equation ().Hence, it notify be stated that the gain of the BJT Amplifier reduced well when the bypass capacitor was removed.The maximum isosceles slash for the amplifier was then tested. This was done as followsThe frequency of the Feedback FG 601 use of goods and services generator was change magnitude until thinning occurred. It was seen that maximum symmetrical shake off was not find as the negative power point of the waveform started clip before the plus waveform. Hence the sink was calculated for both the demonstrable waveform and the negative waveform. The calculations are as follows corroboratory swing shun swingThe maximum voltage swing was found to beThe Tektronix 2205 dual take up oscilloscope was staccato from the circuit and the fluke 177 Multi-meter was employ to measure the quiescent points of the circuit. The tests were displace across the disparate points and their readings were recorded. The luckiness 177 Multi-meter was set at when touchstone currents and at DC voltage when measure voltages. The DC voltage setting was employ as the AC would not yield mensural readings.To measure the quiescent currents, equips were stripped-down and attached to the leads of the probes. The circuit had to be low-down at the quiescent current point being measured. whence the electrify attached to the probe was inserted into the solder less breadboard so that the wire was in series with the component removed. The removed component was placed where it was originally to guarantee persistence in the circuit. This was reiterate at all quiescent points. The chase table illustrates the measured currentsThe following table illustrates the measured currents live judge/ instrument panel 5 AC summary OF roundaboutThe following table illustrates the measured voltagespotential time value/0.676 hold over 4 AC abridgment inactive determine contemporarys I / mA emfsV / V figure assumed measured flowingI / mA emfV/V contemporaryI / mA potencyV/VCurrentI / mAVoltageV/V0.650.6630.676 treatmentThe BJT Amplifier was built using the common emitter configuration. It was H-type one-sided to increase the stability in the transistor. Also, as is moved(p) with temperature a change, the H-type biasing configuration ensures that changes in is minimal. Also, the resistors use were do from carbon. This means that the resistors are not required to suck up high temperature stability. Without a biasing arrangement, the BJT amplifier will not turn on because it will not be in the in operation(p) region according to the specifications (Boylestad, Nashelsky, 1987).The differences in value for quiescent points obtained can be explained because the calculated and pretended value were found under ideal conditions. The component value used varied from the standard values